Cause and Effects of the Rise in Cohabitation

Cause and Effects of the Rise in Cohabitation Recent decades have witnessed a dramatic rise in cohabitation in much of Western Europe including the United Kingdom (Ermisch 2005; Ermisch and Francesconi 2000a; Haskey 2001; Kiernan 2001; Murphy 2000). This rise has taken place against a dramatic decline in marriage rates. A so-called golden age of marriage that prevailed in the United Kingdom from the 1950s up to the 1970s (Festy, 1980), has been eroded. Marriage is no longer the exclusive marker of first union nor the pre-eminent context within which children are born; (Kiernan, 2001). The decline in the popularity of marriage indicates that no longer is marriage seen as the only organizing principle for relationships (Hall, 1993: 8) and therefore legal marriage has given way to a variety of optional non-traditional forms of living together (Boh, 1989: This essay will seek to examine whether the rise in cohabitation will witness a decline in marriage to a point where marriage is a rare phenomenon. This will entail an analysis of statistical evidence on both cohabitation and marriage and the explanations that have been provided. These include notions of selfish individualism (Morgan, 2000), notions of the democratic, consensual and pure relationship (Giddens, 1992; Beck-Gernsheim, 2000), Beckers (1973, 1981) model of marriage, the common-law marriage myth, commitment in cohabiting partnerships, and the use of lived law to create a DIY variety of marriage (Duncan et. al. 2005). The 1960s and the early 1970s was a golden age of marriage in the United Kingdom during which marriage was highly popular among the young ages (Kiernan Eldridge 1987) and a record peak of 480,285 marriages was recorded in 1972 (ONS, 2008). However, since the 1970s there have been considerable changes amounting to a structural shift in individuals demographic behaviour and societal norms (Haskey, 2001) and among these are increases in divorce and in cohabitation, that is, in couples who live together in intimate relationships without being legally married. Similarly, Ferri et al. (2003) have documented several demographic changes which led social commentators to lament the end of marriage. These include significant rises in cohabitation, divorce, lone parent families, single parent households, children born out of marriage and age of marriage.   These changes, it was assumed, led to the disintegration of traditional structures and codes and ultimately to the end of marriage. Statistical evidence indeed shows that there has been a long-term decline in marriage rates and a significant rise in cohabitation. From 1971 to 1995 first marriage rates fell by 90% for teenage women and 80% for women aged 20-24. Median age at first marriage rose from 23.4 to 27.9 yrs for men and 21.4 to 26.0 years for women (Murphy and Wang 1999). The decline in remarriage rates has been even more pronounced. For divorced men, the remarriage rate has fallen by 75% since 1971 (Murphy and Wang 1999). There were 311,000 marriages in the UK in 2004 and this figure fell to 270,000 in 2007. This represents almost half the number of marriages that took place in 1972 when marriage peaked (ONS 2009). On the other hand, cohabiting is the fastest growing family type in the UK (with the proportion of cohabiting couple families increasing from 9% to 14% between 1996 and 2006), (ONS, 2009). Among single women marrying during the latter part of the 1990s, 77% had cohabited with their future husband, compared with 33% of those marrying during the late 1970s, and only 6% of those marrying in the late 1960s (Haskey 2001). During the 1960s, 40% of remarriages were preceded by a period of cohabitation; and this figured had soared to around 85% in 2000. (Murphy 2000). The 2001 Census recorded just over 2 million cohabiting couples in England and Wales (a 67% increase from 1991). When the new form of cohabitation arrived in the 1970s it was mainly a child-free prelude to marriage. Increasingly, children are being born to cohabiting couples. In 2006, 56% of births in England and Wales were outside of marriage compared with 8% in 19z71. (ONS, 2009). Between 1996 and 2006, the number of cohabiti ng couples in the UK increased by over 60%, from 1.4 million to 2.3 million, ONS, 2009). The number of cohabiting couples in England and Wales is projected to almost double to 3.8 million by 2031 (which will be over one in four couples on this projection). (ONS, 2009). Social theorists have conceptualized these trends in terms of individualization theory. The theory which includes notions of the democratic, consensual and pure relationship (Giddens, 1992; Beck-Gernsheim, 2000) and notions of selfish individualism (Morgan, 2000), has emerged as the dominant contested theoretical approach in explaining whether the rise in cohabitation means the end of marriage. According to the former, modern society is viewed as having entered a late modern epoch of de-traditionalisation and individualisation in which traditional rules and institutional frameworks have lost ground, only to be replaced by more modern and rational rules (Beck, 1992 and Giddens, 1992, 1994). Institutional forces such as education, the modern economy and the welfare state have freed individuals from externally imposed constraints, moral codes and traditional customs, a development which Beck (1994) says is a disembedding of individual lives from the structural fabric of social instituti ons and age-specific norms. According to Brannen and Nilsen (2005), social class no longer has the same structuring role that it once had.   Individuals who used to have a standard biography no longer have pre-given life trajectories but are instead compelled to reflexively make their own choices and hence create their own biographies. At the same time, the project of self, with an emphasis on individual self-fulfillment and personal development, comes to replace relational, social aims. This results in families of choice which are diverse, fluid and unresolved, constantly chosen and re-chosen (Weeks 2001) and which Hardill, (2002) refer to as the postmodern household. In families of choice all issues are subject to negotiation and decision making (Beck and Beck- Gernsheim1995, Beck-Gernsheim 2002). Individuals are seen as preferring cohabitation to marriage because they wish to keep their options and their negotiations open ( Wu, 2000). The individualisation theory sees modern relationships as being based on individual fulfillment and consensual love, with sexual and emotional equality, replacing formal unions based on socially prescribed gender roles. Sexuality is largely freed from institutional, normative and patriarchal control as well as from reproduction, producing a plastic sexuality, which serves more as means of self-expression and selfactualisation rather than as a means to reproduction and cementing institutionalized partnership (Giddens, 1992). Giddens argues that that such plastic sexuality as part of the project of self is realized in pure relationships an ideal type that isolates what is most characteristic for intimacy in reflexive modernity, Giddens (1991, 1992).   This is pure because it is entered into for its own sake and for the satisfaction it provides to the individuals involved. The pure relationship must therefore be characterized by openness, involvement, reciprocity and closeness, a nd it presupposes emotional and sexual democracy and equality, Giddens (1991, 1992). According to Cherlin (2004:853), the pure relationship is not tied to an institution such as marriage or the desire to raise children. Rather, it is free-floating, independent of social institutions or economic life. The individualisation theory asserts that these changes in relationships contribute towards the decentring of the married, co-resident, heterosexual couple. It no longer occupies the centre-ground statistically, normatively, or as a way of life (Beck-Gernsheim, 2002; Roseneil and Budgeon, 2004). Instead other forms of living such as cohabitation, living alone, lone parenting, same-sex partnerships, or living apart have become more common and are both experienced and perceived as equally valid. However, most English-speaking commentators (e.g. Morgan, 1995, 2000, 2003; Bellah et al., 1985; Popenoe, 1993; Dnes and Rowthorne, 2002) have developed a pessimistic view of family change. In cohabitation they have seen a moral decline and its harmful effects on society, a loss of family values, individual alienation, social breakdown, rise in crime and other social ills and social, emotional and educational damage to children. For them, the trend in statistics is clear evidence of selfish individualism and have thus advocated for turning the clock back by promoting marriage among other things. Morgan (1995) for instance, argues that without the traditional family to socialize children and in particular to provide role models and discipline for young men, delinquency and crime will escalate and society as a whole will be at risk. To avoid this social policy should seek positively to support marriage and promote traditional gender roles for men and women. According to Morgan (2003), cohabiting relationships are fragile. They are always more likely to break up than marriages entered into at the same time, regardless of age or income. On average, cohabitations last less than two years before breaking up or converting to marriage. Less than four per cent of cohabitations last for ten years or more. She also believes that cohabitation should be seen primarily as a prelude to marriage but increasingly it is part of a pattern which simply reflects an increase in sexual partners and partner change (Morgan, 2003:127). Morgan (1999) also argues that cohabitation is concentrated among the less educated, less skilled and the unemployed. The individualization theory in its various versions, has been seen as having its merit in terms of indicating trends in post-modern societies, but has been criticized for lacking reliable methodologies and for lacking empirical and historical evidence. According to Thernborn (2004), individualisation theory should be seen as a geographically and historically limited exaggeration among the variety and long durà ©es of socio-sexual systems. Individualisation theory is seen as largely resting on the evidence of qualitative work using purposive samples of particular social groups in particular contexts and localities. They do not often use representative samples or total population figures which can accurately portray overall social patterns. According to Sayer (1992) individualization theorists have used intensive research design which are indeed in-depth and able to access social process more directly, and understand its context but points out that such work needs to be complemented by extensive research on patterns and distributions, using representative survey for example. Duncan and Edwards (1999) share the same view that the use of both intensive and extensive research designs will enable generalizations to be made. In addition intensive work will enable better interpretation of the representative patterns revealed by extensive work and to link process to pattern directly rather than depending upon post-hoc deduction, (Duncan and Edwards 1999). Critics of the individualisation theory have argued that the theory underplays the significance of the social and geographical patterning of values and behaviour and neglects the importance of local cultural and social contexts. According to Duncan and Irwin structures of economic necessity, social groups and moral codes have not gone away, although they may have changed. Family forms are still deeply influenced by local structural conditions or contexts and although people might be less constrained by older traditions, this does not necessarily mean individualisation. The traditional structures of class, gender, religion and so on have a continuing importance, (Duncan and Irwin, 2004, 2005). Individualisation theory assumes that individuals can exercise choice and shape their lives. However, the theory has been criticized for taking insufficient account of the context in which individuals make their choices. Critics of individualisation have pointed out, peoples capacity to make choices, for example in respect of separation and divorce, must depend in large measure on their environment, whether for example, on the constraints of poverty, social class and gender, or, more positively, on the safety net provided by the welfare state (Lasch, 1994; Lewis, 2001a). In addition, the context in which people are making their choices is constantly shifting. Thus the meaning of what it is to be married, or to be a parent has changed and continues to change. Actors will in all likelihood be affected by these changes over their own life course and must expect to have to re-visit the decisions they have made, for example in respect of the division of paid and unpaid work, especially at critical points of transition such as parenthood. Charles and Harris (2004) have argued that choices regarding work/life balance are different at different states of the lifecycle. The individualization theory in its various versions, has been seen as having its merit in terms of indicating trends in post-modern societies, but has been criticized for lacking reliable methodologies and for lacking empirical and historical evidence. According to Thernborn (2004), individualisation theory should be seen as a geographically and historically limited exaggeration among the variety and long durà ©es of socio-sexual systems. Individualisation theory is seen as largely resting on the evidence of qualitative work using purposive samples of particular social groups in particular contexts and localities. They do not often use representative samples or total population figures which can accurately portray overall social patterns. According to Sayer (1992) individualization theorists have used intensive research design which are indeed in-depth and able to access social process more directly, and understand its context but points out that such work needs to be complemented by extensive research on patterns and distributions, using representative survey for example. Duncan and Edwards (1999) share the same view that the use of both intensive and extensive research designs will enable generalizations to be made. In addition intensive work will enable better interpretation of the representative patterns revealed by extensive work and to link process to pattern directly rather than depending upon post-hoc deduction, (Duncan and Edwards 1999). Critics of the individualisation theory have argued that the theory underplays the significance of the social and geographical patterning of values and behaviour and neglects the importance of local cultural and social contexts. According to Duncan and Irwin structures of economic necessity, social groups and moral codes have not gone away, although they may have changed. Family forms are still deeply influenced by local structural conditions or contexts and although people might be less constrained by older traditions, this does not necessarily mean individualisation. The traditional structures of class, gender, religion and so on have a continuing importance, (Duncan and Irwin, 2004, 2005). Individualisation theory assumes that individuals can exercise choice and shape their lives. However, the theory has been criticized for taking insufficient account of the context in which individuals make their choices. Critics of individualisation have pointed out, peoples capacity to make choices must depend in large measure on their environment, whether for example, on the constraints of poverty, social class and gender, or, more positively, on the safety net provided by the welfare state (Lasch, 1994; Lewis, 2001a). According to Lupton and Tulloch, (2002), peoples choices may depend in part on the consideration they give to the welfare of others, and on how far others influence the way in which they frame their choices. In addition, the context in which people are making their choices is constantly shifting. Thus the meaning of what it is to be married, or to be a parent has changed and continues to change. Charles and Harris (2004) have argued that choices regarding work/life b alance are different at different states of the lifecycle. Scholars have examined public attitudes towards marriage and cohabitation in order to assess whether the trends in statistics confirm the deinstitutionalisation of marriage (Cherlin, 1994), in which an increase in the acceptability of cohabitation can be interpreted as evidence for weakening of the social norms. Using data from a number of British Social Attitude Surveys, Barlow et. al. found clear evidence of changing public attitudes. More and more people in the United Kingdom were accepting cohabitation both as a partnering and parenting structure, regardless of whether it is undertaken as a prelude or alternative to marriage. In 1994, 70 per cent agreed that People who want children ought to get married, but by 2000 almost half (54 per cent) thought that there was no need to get married in order to have children; cohabitation was good enough. They found increasingly liberal attitudes to pre-marital sex, with the proportion thinking that it was not wrong at all increasing from 42 per cent in 1984 to 62 per cent in 2000. By 2000 more than two-thirds of respondents (67 per cent) agreed it was all right for a couple to live together without intending to get married, and 56 per cent thought it was a good idea for a couple who intend to get married to live together first. Studies by Dyer (1999) and Barlow et al. (2005) found there was a clear difference in attitudes towards cohabitation from young and old generations, indicating a shift in social viewpoint to an acceptance of cohabitation. The younger age groups were more likely to find cohabitation acceptable than older age groups, but all age groups had moved some way towards greater acceptance of pre-marital sex and cohabitation. Barlow et al. argue that over time there is a strong likelihood that society will become more liberal still on these matters, although particular groups, such as the religious, are likely to remain more traditional than the rest. This change in public attitude is echoed by former Home Secretary, Jack Straw who was quoted in the Daily Mail as saying the important thing is the quality of the relationship, not the institution itself (Daily Mail, 16th June, 1999). This acceptance in politics as well as in society is probably one reason why people drift into cohabitation. Barlo w et a!. suggest Britain will probably move towards a Scandinavian pattern, therefore, where long- term cohabitation is widely seen as quite normal, and where marriage is more of a lifestyle choice than an expected part of life. Barlow et al, however, do not interpret the public attitudes to indicate the breakdown or end of marriage as a respected institution. In the 2000 survey, 59 per cent agreed that marriage is still the best kind of relationship. A mere 9 per cent agreed that there is no point getting married it is only a piece of paper, while 73 per cent disagreed. Despite the increasing acceptance of cohabitation, Barlow et al. therefore argue that, overall, marriage is still widely valued as an ideal, but that it is regarded with much more ambivalence when it comes to everyday partnering and   parenting. While only 28 per cent agree that married couples make better parents, just 40 per cent disagree figures virtually unchanged since 2000, (Barlow et al, 2005) According to Barlow et al. (2005), there is a body of   qualitative research that shows that for many cohabitants, living together is seen as a form of marriage rather than an alternative. Moreover, just as the majority think that sex outside marriage is wrong, the same applies to sex outside cohabitation: the large majority of cohabitants, over 80 per cent, think that sex outside a cohabiting relationship is wrong, (Erens et al., 2003). These findings give little support to the notion that many people cohabit outside marriage because cohabitation is more congruent with a project of the self, as individualisation theory would have it (Hall, 1996). Instead research seems to indicate that many traditional norms about relationships still hold true and cohabitation is seen as the equivalent of marriage. According to Barlow et al, (2008), cohabitation is socially accepted as equivalent to marriage and whilst marriage is seen as ideal, social attitudes show great tolerance to differ ent styles of partnering and parenting relationships.

Peace on Earth

This place known so well to me never fails to uplift my spirits after the annual visit my family and I take over summer. The crisp wind and the scent of nature seem to cast a spell on campers, relaxing and relieving them of stress. Tellico Plains, Tennessee might very well be my peace on Earth. I love escaping from the malicious grasp of modern day technology and taking a leap into the wild, with a breath of fresh air to clear my head. It is absolutely rejuvenating to come to this town and live with no connections to the World for a week.Two hours up the narrow, winding, gravel path spiraling the mountain, we veer to the right at Big Oak Campsite. The popping of the tire treads on the gravel sends warm waves through my body; I know we have arrived. Immediately I venture to the freshwater stream crafted from the melting ice off the higher altitude mountains. Due to how inviting it looks, I hop across the slippery stones to the infamous â€Å"Old Faithful† rock, which is just a good trout fishing spot. Standing here I scan my surroundings, which blow my mind. The lush forest filled with oak, pine, maple, and evergreen trees is so dominant over me; and I know it, but I am ok with it.The stream is relatively narrow, only spanning about 20 ft in width. Rocks of all sizes poke out the surface of the water and electric green moss grows thick on each one. They serve as my stepping stones back to the bank. The Coleman camper we pull behind the car is old and smells musty every year, but it doesn’t phase me at all. We wench the pop top up and pull out the beds, make them up and sweep the linoleum floor before we go any further in setting up camp, the last touch to the camper being a floor mat just inside the door.By this time, the sun is setting and the fireflies are flourishing. Everywhere you look you see a spark of yellow-green light on the move. It’s almost impossible to refrain from getting up to attempt to catch one, so I get up every time. Cre eping up slowly with a jar in one hand, lid in the other, I zoom my vision to the vicinity around me, wait for the bud of the insect to light up, and snatch him up inside the jar. It is likely, too, that I move on to the next nearest light I see and try again to catch a critter, and in the process lose the first one I caught, leaving me with none.The creaking of the Coleman coolers filled with ice, cold cokes, sweet tea, bacon, eggs, and the most delicious chocolate milk in the World makes my eyes light up. It just gives me that feeling of lightness; like there are no worries here. It has nothing to do with the fact that it is a cooler, but more so the amount of times I have heard the sound, only here. As the temperature drops low at night, a fire is needed to keep warm. Mom usually takes the initiative to get the fire going. The teepee of logs under stuffed with newspapers and twigs burns slow and hot, and makes a mean s’more.Appetite satisfied, exhausted from the trip, the pull out mattress looks ever so inviting. I grab my toothbrush and walk to the water cooler to brush my teeth and wash my face. After cleaned up, it’s PJ time. Then I lay myself down, pull the covers up to my chin and tuck myself in. As I lie here, I can honestly say I feel numb to the World. The rushing of the stream plays in my head like music and puts me in a trance; a trance that no other place could ever measure up to doing. There really is peace on Earth, unfortunately you have to find it.

A War to Preserve a Union - 1344 Words

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Compare and Contrast Technology Through the Years Essay

It is amazing that technology has changed the world around us, within just two decades. Some of the technologies include instantaneous communication, realistic looking games, information at the tip of you fingers, and personal computers. These are some of technologies that affect our lives so much. Without them, we could not call it the modern age of man kind. The telephone that we know today is completely different from the one of the past. Today we can individually press each number quickly to call someone. We can even call someone through the computer without the person actually owning a phone. The telephone of the past had the numbers on a curricular disc. This design made forced you to tediously move each number to a specific†¦show more content†¦Several years ago, if someone told her that she could talk to her friends instantly, she would have told them that it is impossible. Several years ago, when someone did not know the definition of a word, they normally turn to a book known as a dictionary. This takes several minutes, to find the definition of the word they are looking for. Today thanks to the internet, someone can just go to the site known as dictionary.com and find the meaning of the word the second after they press enter. My father remembers that when he was in school, he was sometimes asked to look up the definition of a word. He would go to a dictionary to look for the definition of the word, finding it would take several minutes. Now however, he just goes to his computer and types in the word and, in just seconds he learns the meaning of that word. Just a few years ago, the only way that people knew what was happening in other parts of the world was by hearing it on a news report over the radio. Now, people use the television to get news reported to them. 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It means through the CMM model, ability or productivity of software organization is measurable and we can choose better software developmentRead MoreCare Theory Compare Contrast1602 Words   |  7 PagesCare Theory Compare and Contrast Paper Pamela Morales HCS 350 July 11, 2011 Care Theory Compare and Contrast Paper Jean Watson’s Theory of human caring is based on transpersonal relationships and developing a caring environment that offers the development potential while allowing the person to choose the best course of action. Through interactions with others we learn how to recognize ourselves in others. Watson believes that through these interactions humanity is preserved. John Paley’s article

Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa - 1443 Words

Eating Disorders Sean Boehm Abnormal Psychology Professor. Johnston Farmingdale State College Due November 24th 2014 An eating disorder is a disorder that specifically focuses on the person’s weight and these behaviors are so detrimental not only to their performance in their everyday life but to their physical health. According to Hoeksema (2014) eating disorders can be characterized in three ways which include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa can be further broken down into two types which are anorexia nervosa restricting type, and anorexia nervosa binge/purge type. Eating disorders if approached early enough can be reversed with no damage or very minimal damage to the person.†¦show more content†¦This disorder greatly varies from one person to the next and a contributor can be from cultural factors. Where one country accepts this severe form of thinness another may not. The media is also a major contributor for people accepting this extreme weight problem. Individuals then strive to make themselves exactly as th ese people depicted on TV are in fear that they are not perfect enough. It has also been shown that anorexia can cause heart problems such as irregular heartbeat, stomach problems, and a major reduction in bone density making it easier break a bone. Individuals that suffer from anorexia nervosa are often severely underweight due to the fact that they choose not to eat or eat so little that the amount of cariole’s that they are taking in isn’t enough to sustain their body. Individuals suffering from anorexia nervosa have a distorted image of the way there body looks otherwise called a body dimorphic disorder. They always see themselves as fat and they turn to starving themselves to help lose the weight. These individuals also have a great fear of gaining weight but because they choose either not to eat or eat very little there is no chance of them to gain any form of weight. Anorexia effects both men and women but with women this serve drop in weight effects there abili ty to be able to menstruate. This is a condition otherwise known as amenorrhea. An example of

Autobiography †My earliest memories Free Essays

It was a beautiful summer’s day and the birds were singing sweetly like a church choir of angels. My elder brother, Narvair suggested to my mother and father to go birthday shopping for presents as it was nearing my fifth birthday. As we sauntered down the long drive to the blue Vauxhall Cavalier, the blazing sun almost blinded us. We will write a custom essay sample on Autobiography – My earliest memories or any similar topic only for you Order Now We could feel the intense heat so much that sweat was pouring down our faces. As we travelled and approached the motorway, I enquired about our destination, but I was informed that it was a surprise. On the way we passed many fields where there were numerous horses, sheep and cows were grazing. In the far distance I could see the roofs of many houses and the tall pointed steeple of a church. Through the sun roof I could see the cloudless calm blue sky. As we left the motorway, I realised that we were heading for Meadow Hall. At this moment I was full of excitement, but this soon fizzled away, as it took such a long time to find a parking space.  Like read about memories? Read also  Flashbulb memory! Eventually we entered the large, brightly lit shopping mall, jam-packed with people hustling and bustling in and out of the shops. I immediately held my mummy’s hand in case I strayed away. As we tried to pass the people I peeked through any small spaces in between the busy bodies looking for toy shops. Further along the mall, my grip loosened on my mum’s hand, as my attention drew towards my brother. Whilst playfully tussling with my brother, I kept a close eye on my mum and dad’s whereabouts. My mum entered the clothes shop and my dad browsed the sports shop adjacent to it. As we were playing, a bouncy ball fell out of my pocket and rolled down the precinct. Without hesitation I let go of my mum’s hand and sped after the ball not realising I had soon left my parents and brother well behind. The ball bounced and rolled on being kicked by the on going people. In the long run I caught up with the ball as a gentleman trapped it under his foot. I thanked him and aimlessly ran in random directions seeking my mum and dad. Suddenly I discovered I was all alone and began to shed tears running in and out of shops bellowing for my mum, to no avail. Some time later, I saw a lady clothes shop where there was a lady wearing Indian garments. At this moment I felt relieved and hoped I had found my mum. Spontaneously I dashed towards her, only to find it was a shop window dummy. Amidst the confusion and the strangers, I began to cry and screech but no one would help. Further on the shopping mall I stepped onto the escalator leading up to the top floor. Looking over the railings I had an overview of the ground floor; however I could not see any members of my family. At this point I decided to ask all the passing people of my parent’s whereabouts, but nobody knew. With exhaustion and blurry eyes I sat on the cold hard floor with my legs through the railings, eager to locate my parents or my brother. Suddenly a security guard crouched down beside me and informed me that it was not a good idea to have my legs dangling through the railings. He then asked me why I was crying. Having told him I had ran away from my parents to find my ball and now was lost. The guard offered to help, comforted and escorted me to the customer service desk. Here he announced over the shopping mall’s tanoy system: â€Å"Can Mr and Mrs Birdi please come to the customer service desk immediately?† On seeing my parents coming I darted towards my mother and clung to her with a tight grip. My parents were very much relieved and delighted to see me. â€Å"Sandeep, where have you been? We have been looking for you,† exclaimed my dad. â€Å"I ran after my ball dad,† I replied sobbing. â€Å"Don’t ever do it again, let us know where you are going. Now stop crying,† my mum said hugging and kissing me. After comforting me, my parents and my brother marched on towards the toy shop. I ran into the toy shop like a charging bull with my brother, but my mum insisted that I calmed down. Still excited I tried to take in all the toys around but eventually I carefully chose a special edition Action Man. It was a large present with many gadgets such as recording radio and a firing machine gun. I had been longing for this present and could not let anyone else handle it. I was really proud and could hardly wait for my birthday, so that I could play with it amongst my other toys. This made me the happiest five years old in the world. To this day I have still kept the Action Man in excellent condition and working order. Even now it is a pleasure to play with it, although I remember how I found my self lost in the huge shopping Mall. How to cite Autobiography – My earliest memories, Papers

Bodies on The Inside Gender and prison †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Bodies on The Inside Gender and prison. Answer: Bodies on the inside: Gender and prison A media article was published in news.com.au on April 18, 2016 which reported about the torture that was faced by a transgender woman in a male prison of Australia. According to the report all the transgender women who contradict the laws are sent to male prisons as they are not considered as female at all. The victim in the instant case was asked to strip and was raped for more than 2000 times during her detention in the prison. Another transgender women flew to US for seeking asylum after she got tortured and sexually molested. In US she was kept detained with male prisoners where again she was sexually assaulted by the guards of the immigration (Lambert 2016). Yet another trans- woman who was kidnapped, tortured and sexually assaulted by gang members in her native State escaped to US where she was kept in detention facility with men. The guards in the detention facility failed to protect her from being harassed and sexually assaulted (Lambert 2016). According to the Coordinator of LGBT Community Rights Program at Human Rights Watch, Adam Frankel a number of women from transgender community who come to US to seek asylum after being abused in their native territories are kept detained in the immigration facility with men where they are exposed to more risk of sexual abuse and violence by the other male detainees and the detaining authorities. The abuse is of the same nature which they tried to escape from their native territories. They also have to sleep and bathe in the same place as other male detainees. Further they are often exposed to embarrassing and offensive strip examination by male authorities and the guards fail to protect them from the abuse (Human Rights Watch 2016). According to a report of Human Rights Watch the present detention rules of the US immigration centers require the detention of trans- women in male detention facility. As per the estimates of Immigration and Customs Enforcement of US around sixty- five trans- women are detained in immigration facilities of US. Further the report also says that women of transgender community have to live in poverty, and experience violence and discriminatory behavior. According to observations made by a number of other studies trans- women who have a darker complexion or are poor and deprived have to face oral, corporal and carnal abuse during the period of detention. They also face hurdles in getting access to hormonal replacement therapy and HIV treatment (Stauffer 2016). According to some academic writers violence and male domination has been accepted as a culture in male prisons and male detention facilities in United States. Many countries deny to accept the fact that violence and rape takes place in their prison while many other do not accept violence and rape in male prisons and have made laws to punish such offences. In some other countries sexual act and sexual violence are considered as common trend in prisons and detention facilities. The sexual acts taking place inside the prisons require an improved consideration for reasons like the occurrence of sexual violence, the threat of HIV infection and also the possibility of the restoration of ex- offenders (Sim 1995). It is assumed that most of the sexual acts occurring in detention centers are a result of forceful sexual activity rather than a consensual one. But on the contrary some texts are of the view that some of these sexual activities are consensual. Further these sexual activities occurring in detention facilities are one of the major contributors to the increasing number of persons infected through HIV. The distinction between sex through consent and forceful sex inside a detention facility is very vague. In most of the cases the nature of sexual act is forceful or coercive. This vagueness has been one of the factors behind the rise in sex studies inside the prisons (Gear 2001). According to gender studies, hegemonic masculinity relates to the acceptance of male dominance over other genders of the society and the subordination of the latter. Such domination of male groups and subordination of the others is legitimately accepted by the society at large. The gender studies has also given scope to feminism and transgender studies. The increase in feminism and transgender studies further gives scope to criticize the idea of hegemonic masculinity. On the contrary, the studies related to prison are not based on gender in particular rather they focus on criminals as distinct from gender (Sim 1995). The acts of violence by men in the detention in addition to the trend of hegemonic masculinity, individual power of men and male dominance has been accepted as truth of prisons and aggressive masculine milieu. The men are the rulers in the kingdom of prison who govern the rules of the prison. The persons of transgender community are considered to be the queen of the prison. They are looked at as submissive females to the carnal desires of the male community. These reported consequences of power deprivation and the construction of gender roles are unsurprisingly presented as the primary roots of rape in prison (Sim 1995). Some of the sociologists and psychologists are of the perception that sex is a fundamental requirement. Consequently, if human beings are deprived of it they look for other ways to fulfill that requirement. The acceptance of hegemonic masculinity gives arbitrary right to the male prisoners as well as the detaining authorities at the immigration to exercise male dominance on the other detainees in the facility. One another drawback of the recognition of hegemonic masculinity is exclusion of female authorities at the immigration facilities. According to a writer male detainees see forced sex as a means to exercise hostile dominance and carnal gratification. A number of writers are of the view that rape is related with matters of dominance and power. Therefore the object could possibly be power yet it could give occasion for committal of rape. Also in the case of rape the carnal gratification might be the initial objective but the act is caused in furtherance of the exercise of power. One of the factors responsible for the committal of rape in detention facilities, as have been observed by some of the writers, may be boredom. Another factor may be the length of the period of detention. The reason behind increasing number of incidents of rape and sexual violence in the detention facility is corruption and ineffectuality on the part of the detention authorities. Isa Noyola, the Director of Programs at Transgender Law Center, San Francisco, says when women of transgender community are put into male detention cells by the State they are put in the danger of being sexually violated (Human Rights Watch 2016). Flor Bermudez another authority from Transgender Law Center of San Francisco says women of transgender community are beaten, harassed, raped, sexually abused and put in isolation in the detention facility. They are not given access to medical care, HIV medication and hormonal replacement therapy (Human Rights Watch 2016). The Constitution of USA secures safety and health of every prisoner of transgender community irrespective of the fact where they are detained. Further the Prison Rape Elimination Act, also makes provision for the protection of prisoners of transgender community. Both the legislations make provisions to cover the prisoners who are detained in private facilities or where the detaining staff is not a government authority (National Center for Lesbian Rights 2014). The court has observed that denial to provide hormone therapy to transgender prisoners is in violation of the Equal Protection Clause (Fields v. Smith 653 F.3d 550, 2011 U.S. App. LEXIS 16152). The Prison Rape Elimination Act was enacted to make provisions to control the acts of sexual violence and torture occurring in prisons, detention centers and immigration facilities (Prison Rape Elimination Act 42 U.S.C. 15601). The Department of Justice of USA dispensed final rules for the implementation of the Act in 2012. These rules are called Standards. These Standards did not made provisions for its application on immigration detention facilities but later on in 2014 rules were made by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) for the purpose. Also prisoners have no right to bring action against the detaining authorities in case of violation of these Standards by the latter (Delonta v. Clarke No. 7:11-cv-00483, 2013 WL 209489 at *3 (W.D. Va. Jan. 14, 2013)). In one of its report Human Rights Watch gave some recommendations to the US government regarding the detention of trans- women in male detention facility. The report gave recommendations to make substitute detention facilities for transgender women and not detain them in male facility, to revise its rules regarding the detention of trans- women in detention centers and to ensure that those rules are in confirmation to the international law and to make rules for the safe detention of trans- women with respect to their human rights, to take measures to ensure that violence and harassment of any kind towards the trans- women detainees is stopped and to provide them the medical care required by them (Stauffer 2016). Conclusion According to the media article and other reports presented by different authorities the vulnerable position of transgender women in immigration centers is evident. The government of United States is taking measures to protect their basic human rights. The main reason behind their deteriorating position is the gender identity crisis that some sections of the world society are facing till date. The LGBT community still face gender identity crisis in most of the countries. The main reason behind this is the non- acceptance of their orientation on the part of the other sections of the society. This is also quite evident in the writings of some of the academic writers who have accepted the male dominance and hegemonic masculinity culture in prisons and detention centers. This acceptance further degrades the social status of the non- accepted community of the society. It is the need of the hour to give recognition to their gender, orientation and human rights. References: Delonta v. Clarke No. 7:11-cv-00483, 2013 WL 209489 at *3 (W.D. Va. Jan. 14, 2013). Fields v. Smith 653 F.3d 550, 2011 U.S. App. LEXIS 16152. Gear, S. 2001, Sex, sexual violence and coercion in mens prisons, Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Available from: https://csvr.org.za/docs/correctional/sexsexualviolence.pdf. [8 September 2017]. Human Rights Watch 2016, US: Transgender women abused in immigration detention, face sexual assault, solitary confinement, Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/03/23/us-transgender-women-abused-immigration-detention. [8 September 2017]. Lambert, O 2016, A transgender woman talks about life in a male prison, news.com.au, 18 April 2016. Available from https://www.news.com.au/national/queensland/a-transgender-woman-talks-about-life-in-a-male-prison/news-story/ae7ecb63dbc4da82cc56b4f1a97267f3. [7 September 2017]. National Center for Lesbian Rights, 2014, Know your rights: laws, court decisions, and advocacy tips to protect transgender prisoners, American Civil Liberties Union. Available from: https://www.nclrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/RightsofTransgenderPrisoners.pdf. [8 September 2017]. Prison Rape Elimination Act, 2003. Sim, J 1995, Tougher than the rest? Men in prison, in T Newburn EA Stanko (ed) Just Boys Doing Business?: Men, Masculinities and Crime, Taylor and Francis. Available from: ProQuest EBook Central. [8 September 2017]. Stauffer, B. 2016, Do you see how much Im suffering here? Abuse against transgender women in US immigration detention, Human Rights Watch, Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/03/23/do-you-see-how-much-im-suffering-here/abuse-against-transgender-women-us. [8 September 2017].